EDU 04: DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIODS.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIODS.

Curiosity increases man’s knowledge. Science is one of the most important aspects of human life. It’s a broad field which studies various subjects from nature to machines. Science has led to better understanding of the world and is making human life better. Science began as simple concept then gradually move to complex. Solutions of many problems have been found out with the help of science.

Development of science:

Science developed along with man’s understanding with nature. Inventions that man found for survival leads to growth of science.

Science in ancient period:

The ancient man was completely dependent on nature for survival. Man observes nature and explained the phenomenon in simple ways. Experiments are done on the basis of observation. In around 3500 BC, man developed civilization. A new urban society in which agriculture was developed, writing was invented, trade and commerce flourished. Development of writing is one of the biggest milestones of human kind history. It enabled man to store knowledge. Early form of writing was in symbols. Several inscriptions from the Egyptian and Mesopotamian (ancient Iraq) civilizations give us knowledge about life during that period. Arts and science were developing during these civilizations. The Sumerians of Iraq have contributed to modern science with their numerical data. For e. g. the number system based on 60 is basis for 360-degree circle. Astronomical periods identified by them are still widely used in lunar calendars. Babylonian astronomy was the first attempt at refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. Ancient Egypt made significant developments in astronomy, medicine and mathematics.

Science in the classical age:

The Classical age is a period spanning over 1000 years from the 8th century BC to around 6th Century AD. It is the age of cultural advancement of the Greek and Roman civilizations. Philosophers during this period developed such knowledge in science that became basic foundations for later scientific study. Philosophers stopped merely ―suggesting‖ the human form and began ―describing‖ it with accuracy. Thales (7th c BC) is considered as the Father of Science. He was the first to state that movement of earth and earthquake were geological phenomena and not works of gods. Pythagoras (6th C BC) founded school of mathematics, while Euclid (3rd C BC) devised axioms, theorems and proofs in mathematics Mathematical devices of both are still considered basics foundations in geometry. Aristarchus (2nd C BC) was the first to propose a heliocentric model of solar system, that is the sun was at the center and the earth revolved around it. Eratosthenes calculated approximate accurate circumference of the earth. Leucippus and his student Democritus introduced the theory that all matter is made of indivisible units called atoms. Plato and Aristotle gave philosophical explanations to natural phenomena. They also made important contributions to biological sciences. Greek became the primary language of Science. Schools of science were established in Alexandria in Egypt. Later German works were translated in to Latin by Roman philosophers. Many scientists during this period were pioneers in their field. It was such path breaking knowledge that made this period ―classical‖ for later generations.

Science in the Middle Ages:

The period between the classical ages and European Renaissance is referred to as the Middle Ages. It marked both the decline of scientific advancement and also later its revival. The middle ages are studied in three parts; early, high and later. Early Middle ages (476-1000 AD)

Under the rule of Charlemagne in Italy, sciences were encouraged. He introduced several educational reforms and brought about Cultural Revolution. He set up new schools throughout his empire. Some experts believe that the scientific study during Charlemagne’s rule was not original, but based on researches on ancient Roman texts. Because of lack of original scientific contribution and also loss of several ancient works, this period is called the Dark Ages. During the dark ages many arts were lost and science suffered major decline.

From the 11th century onwards, innovation again got impetus. There were new scientific discoveries. The European scholars during this period were influenced not only by classic Greek works but also by Arabic texts. They translated these ancient classics into Latin and started improving the knowledge base. Inventions such as the windmills and magnetic compass advanced agriculture and trade. The introduction of papermaking by the Chinese transformed the way knowledge was stored and circulated.

The most important development during this period was the separation of science from theology and philosophy. Scientific works of the Byzantine and Islamic empire influenced the Europeans during this period. Science was no more joined with religious understanding. The most lasting and strong foundation theories were given by William Occam (14th century). Today it is known as Occam’s razor. Its simple explanation means “when you Have two competing theories that make exactly the same predictions, the simpler one is the better”. It was later on utilized by Newton and Einstein.

Science in the Renaissance:

The scholars and philosophers during this period rejected medieval idea of god being the central idea for nature and art. They developed new theories which rejected the classical theories. Nicolas Copernicus developed a more detailed and accurate heliocentric theory of the planetary system. His explaining the revolution of earth and other heavenly bodies revolving around the sun was banned by the church, since it believed in the geocentric theory. He also made theoretical studies in mathematics. Johan Kepler was a strong follower of Copernicus’s theory. He studied it and added the fact that planets revolve around the sun in ellipse and not complete circles. His contribution is the famous Three Laws of planetary motion. Galileo Galilee was the man of true renaissance spirit. He was not only an astronomer, but also a physicist, mathematician and philosopher. His first scientific discovery was the law of pendulum. He later successfully developed several devices like magnet, compass, thermometer, microscope etc. His breakthrough discovery was however, the use of telescope for observation of space. He is known as the father of Modern physics as he developed the law of falling bodies. Leonardo da Vinci is known as the Renaissance man. He was a scientist, mathematician, philosopher, architect and painter. He wrote and drew on subjects including geology, anatomy, flight, gravity and optics, often flitting from subject to subject on a single page, and writing in left-handed mirror script. He made proto types of the bicycle, airplane, helicopter, and parachute. Renaissance was thus a period of new ideas and growth of scientific knowledge.

 Science in the age of reason and enlightenment (1650-1800):

The Age of Enlightenment succeeding the Age of Reason was the period of further scientific advancement. Isaac Newton is considered the greatest figure of scientific revolution. He was a physicist, astronomer, mathematician and also a theologian. He gave the theory of gravitation. He made significant contributions to the fields of optics and mechanics. Several universities and institutes of scientific studies were set up all over the world during the scientific age. This encouraged scientific research. In the 19th century further advances were made in astronomy; new planets were discovered and phenomenon like dark stars and star creation were studied.

Science now:

A crucial development has been cross-fertilization among particular disciplines, physics, biology, chemistry and mathematics. This does not just relate to multi-disciplinary approaches in studying phenomena but also, critically, to the recognition that discovered natural laws in a specific branch might have a bearing on others. We have already mentioned the general importance of thermodynamic laws and of the Darwinian principle of natural variation being applied to understand the force from the environment for selection of structures of increasing complexity. The two principles come together in what is today named “complexity theory”, formerly termed “chaos” or “catastrophe theory” and, in a sense, misnamed. At root, the theory concerns merely the recognition that chaos need not necessarily be a permanent state in non-equilibrium systems that show a natural tendency for self-organization. It is the philosophy that underpins observations on how things by evolution come into being that counts here. It helps to improve our current understanding how today natural processes function.

Conclusion:

Science is a way of discovering what is in the universe and how those things work today, how they worked in the past, and how they are likely to work in the future. Scientific knowledge is continuously increasing. when new ideas develop and new evidences are found, theories improve accordingly. No theory is at any time completely proven, except in mathematics. Wrong theories are modified or completely discarded. Science teaches us that nothing is permanent everything will change the only one thing which doesn’t have any change is the word “change”.